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May 21, 2021 by wpengine

Pittsburgh’s Moths Reflect Human Impact of Industry

by Nicholas Sauer

I began to think in earnest about industrial melanism while working at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in 2018 when the We Are Nature exhibit was on display as part of the museum’s intensive focus on the Anthropocene. There was an unassuming corner of the exhibit devoted to the fate of the peppered moth (Biston betularia) during the Industrial Revolution. Dark-colored—melanistic—peppered moths were rare in England and Germany until the Industrial Revolution and the inevitable increase of air pollution from the burning of fossil fuels. With the rise of heavy industry, pale peppered moths began to stick out like bright specks on soot-covered vegetation. These pale moths were easy targets for hungry birds. The coal-choked environment favored the moth populations that possessed a gene for darker coloration, providing an example of natural selection at work. In recent years, scientists have located the specific gene that accounts for the darker moths and can trace the changing selection on color variation in peppered moths back to at least 1819 when the burning of coal for industrial purposes began to pick up steam in the British Isles.

In 1896, English entomologist J.W. Tutt theorized that his nation’s industrial conditions profoundly affected local moth populations. He argued that lichen on trees provided camouflage for the salt-and-pepper-colored moths. According to Tutt, industrial pollution killed off the lichen and, in turn, the pollution—soot and ash—camouflaged the darker moths, particularly the dark form of Biston betularia, f. carbonaria. It was not until the 1950s that Tutt’s theory was tested. Through a series of experiments, lepidopterist Bernard Kettlewell demonstrated that when both light and dark peppered moths (f. typica and carbonaria respectively) were released in industrially-contaminated woodlands in Birmingham and Dorset, England, birds fed on the most “conspicuous” form, f. typica, the pale moths. Kettlewell’s experiment would wind up in science textbooks for decades to come as a demonstration of natural selection.

Black moth on light background.
“[1931] Peppered Moth (Biston betularia) f.carbonaria” by Bennyboymothman is licensed under CC BY 2.0

In the wake of Kettlewell’s findings, similar experiments were conducted in the United States, even in the Pittsburgh area. The scientist leading the melanism study in the Eastern United States in the 1950s, Denis Frank Owen (1931-1996), pored over the moth collections right here at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History as well as those of several other natural history museums in the Northeast and Midwest. A transplant from England at the beginning of his long career as an ecologist, Owen sought to test whether or not Kettlewell’s results would be reflected in his own data on the American side of the Atlantic. Owen’s own findings were very much like Kettlewell’s. This, of course, was unsurprising in the case of Pittsburgh considering the massive amount of pollutants that were emitted by the city’s steel mills. To get a good idea of how polluted the city was at that time, check out the two soot-stained squares that remain on the mural The Crowning of Labor on the second and third floors of CMNH’s Grand Staircase.

Owen discovered that Pittsburgh had some of the earliest records of industrial melanism in the Northeast—melanistic forms of Epimecis hortaria (or, the Tulip Tree Beauty) dating from 1922 and Biston cognataria dating from 1910. Owen posited in his research that the number of melanistic moths were increasing in the late 1950s and early 1960s, particularly in environs surrounding industrial cities like Detroit and Pittsburgh, even as far as outlying rural areas. At Westmoreland County’s Powdermill Nature Reserve, all eight of the peppered moths observed in a 1957 study were melanistic, according to Owen.

Unfortunately, records of industrial melanism were never kept as meticulously in the U.S. as they were in the U.K., so our understanding of how widespread the phenomenon was States-side is incomplete. However, since the 1970s, much more data has been collected on peppered moths in the U.S. than before. This data has reflected the implementation of clean air regulations and tracked the overall decline in the ratio of melanistic peppered moths in favor of the pale form, supporting the theory that these moth populations, either Biston betularia (f. typica or carbonaria) or their cousins, are subject to natural selection that is weighted by pollution. Biologist Bruce S. Grant has suggested that more recent data from the post-industrial era be put to greater educational use—not to supplant Kettlewell’s famous experiment, but to supplement it with more up-to-date scientific findings.

Regrettably, even in the “Post-Industrial” era following the birth of the Environmental Protection Agency (1970) and the Clean Air Act (1972), peppered moths are subject to human-exacerbated environmental threats. In the 1980s, when scientists sought an explanation for the continued presence of melanistic moths in rural eastern Pennsylvania, they instead discovered two major dangers to peppered moths and their habitat. First, so-called gypsy moths (Lymantria dispar dispar)—an invasive species introduced to the U.S. by humans in the 19th century—were rapidly defoliating the woodlands that the peppered moths called home. Secondly, the Pennsylvania Department of Forestry was spraying the area with the pesticides Dylox and Dimilin to combat Lymantria dispar and may have adversely affected the peppered moths in the process.

This example of the twin dangers of invasive species and pesticide use, in addition to the earlier instances of industrial pollution, demonstrate human beings’ profound effect on the natural world during the Anthropocene. The travails of the peppered moth are key to understanding the influence humans have on the ecosystems around them, so far as becoming even a variable in the way natural selection operates. The Pittsburgh area and the scientific collections at CMNH have played an important part in the study of industrial melanism in peppered moths and will continue to do so as the natural world responds in its way to human influence. The decline in melanistic moth numbers that correlates with cleaner air and more conscientious environmental regulations provides hope that that human influence is not uniformly negative.

Nicholas Sauer is a Gallery Experience Presenter in CMNH’s Life Long Learning Department. Museum staff, volunteers, and interns are encouraged to blog about their unique experiences and knowledge gained from working at the museum.

Works Cited

Blakemore, Erin. “New Evidence Shows Peppered Moths Changed Color in Sync with Industrial Revolution.” Smithsonian Magazine, 1 June 2016. <https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/new-evidence-peppered-moths-changed-color-sync-industrial-revolution-180959282/>.

Cook, M.L., et al. “Post Industrial Melanism in the Peppered Moth.” Science, no. 3 (Feb 7, 1986): 611. Gale In Context: College, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A4128493/CSIC?u=pitt92539&sid=CSIC&xid=56d31b9d. Accessed 17 Apr. 2021.

Grant, Bruce S. “Fine Tuning the Peppered Moth Paradigm.” Evolution 53, no. 3 (1999): 980-984.

Grant, B.S. and L.L. Wiseman. “Recent History of Melanism in American Peppered Moths.” Journal of Heredity 93, 2 (March 2002): 86-90. <https://academic.oup.com/jhered/article/93/2/86/2187377>.

Manley, Thomas R. “Temporal Trends in Frequency of Melanistic Morphs in Cryptic Moths of Rural Pennsylvania.” Journal of the Lepidopterists’ Society 42, no. 3 (1988): 213-217.

Maynard, M. and Geoffrey T. Hellman. “Comment.” The New Yorker Magazine, 13 August, 1955: 15. <https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1955/08/13/comment-4365>.

Owen, D.F. “Industrial Melanism in North American Moths.” The American Naturalist 95, no. 883 (Jul.-Aug., 1961): 227-233. <https://www.jstor.org/stable/2458933?seq=1>. Accessed 18 April 2021.

Rudge, David Wyss. “The Role of Photographs and Films in Kettlewell’s Popularizations of the Phenomenon of Industrial Melanism.” Science and Education 12 (2003): 261-287.

Smith, David A.S. “Obituary: Denis Owen.” The Independent, 23 Oct. 1996. <https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/obituary-denis-owen-1359897.html>.

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Carnegie Museum of Natural History Blog Citation Information

Blog author: Sauer, Nicholas
Publication date: May 21, 2021

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Filed Under: Blog Tagged With: Bug Bonanza, Nicholas Sauer, pennsylvania, Pittsburgh

September 27, 2019 by wpengine

An Annual Return to My Bug-loving Roots

black and beetle on goldenrod
Image used by permission of Stuart Tingley, Cormierville, New Brunswick, Canada. Megacyllene robiniae (Forster), female on bloom of goldenrod

It’s that time of year again when one of my favorite beetles, Megacyllene robiniae (Forster), is starting to appear. Called the “locust borer” due to its larva’s habit of feeding in the living wood of black locust trees, it is one of the last species of long-horned beetle (family Cerambycidae) to emerge in late summer. Adults can be found feeding on the flowers of goldenrod, starting around late August and persisting in the field well into October. The beautiful yellow and black patterned beetles are strikingly colored, but can be quite cryptic when resting on the flowers of goldenrod, which shares the same shade of yellow as the beetle. As long as a larval host source is nearby, a stroll in a field of goldenrod is sure to produce a few adults, boldly feeding on pollen in broad daylight, yet still difficult to visually sort out from the background of the flowers which they visit.

Megacyllene is a genus of Cerambycidae that elicits as much sentimental as scientific interest for me, because it was one of the first long-horned beetles I encountered as a kid. I can still remember coming home from school in the early autumn and heading out into a large field of goldenrod behind my Ohio home to look for the beetles. The only other species of Megacyllene present in Ohio and Pennsylvania is Megacyllene caryae (Gahan) – the “painted hickory borer.” Contrary to M. robiniae – it is one of the earliest cerambycids to emerge in late April to early May, the adults having eclosed in the fall and remaining in their pupal cells until spring. I vividly remember my grandfather bringing home a load of hickory firewood one January, unaware that it was infested with the beetles. Upon splitting a log, he found the adults in their pupal cells awaiting the Spring warmth to emerge. He and I together split those logs smaller and smaller looking for more specimens. We ended up with a nice series of beetles and a bunch of wood whittled down to kindling size!

Image used by permission of Shannon Schade, Elkton, MD. Megacyllene caryae (Gahan), mating pair

Monochamus notatus (Drury) is a spectacular species of long-horned beetle, common in Pennsylvania in stands of white pine. The larva feeds under the bark of dying or dead pine and its feeding can be heard as a high-pitched rasping sound as far as 20 feet from the tree. This behavior has earned the species the common name of “pine sawyer” – the noise resembling the sound of an old-fashioned two-man crosscut saw raking back and forth through a log.

Image used by permission of Carolyn Waddell, Bugguide #1184417, Creative Commons, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Monochamus notatus (Drury), male

When I was thirteen, while camping at Mohican State Park in north-central Ohio with my family, I was sitting at a picnic table eating lunch. Suddenly, a large male M. notatus came wafting through the campsite, its lengthy antennae trailing behind it, and looking about the size of a small bird to my young bug-enthusiast eyes. I dropped my food, jumped from the table, grabbed my net, and swept the beast out of the air – the first cerambycid beetle that I ever collected! I still have that specimen 46 years later and I attribute it with starting me on the road to specializing on the family Cerambycidae – now my strongest area of taxonomic expertise. I have seen millions of specimens of long-horned beetles from all around the globe during my career, but that one specimen generates more sentiment than the rest combined – I can still smell the pine scent in the air on that day I caught it.

Collecting insects as a kid was the gateway into an amazing world of diversity, and as it turned out, the foundation of what would become my career and lifelong passion. When I look at specimens I caught in those early years, they produce a flood of memories – of specimens caught and of those that got away; of woods where I memorized every fallen log and patch of flowers; of the copy of Josef Knull’s 1946 book “The Long-horned Beetles of Ohio,” with its pages worn and every word read over and over again a thousand times; even the long bike rides, carrying my net and jars out to areas remote from my home in search of “wild” areas in which to hunt for beetles. The specimens serve as little time machines – carrying me back to my childhood and the dawn of my interest in entomology. Going into the field now is more sophisticated, and structured, and planned – better gear, GPS units to record localities, a lifetime of experience to rely upon – not to mention a car that can take me farther afield. But those days of simple exploration, where nearly every venture outdoors uncovered some new wonder, will always be some of my most cherished memories – and those beetles on pins will always be the vehicles that carry me back to that wondrous time in my life.

Bob Androw is a Scientific Preparator in Invertebrate Zoology. Museum employees are encouraged to blog about their unique experiences and knowledge gained from working at the museum.

Filed Under: Blog Tagged With: beetles, Bob Androw, Invertebrate Zoology, pennsylvania

May 31, 2019 by wpengine

Poison Ivy – Collected on This Day

poison ivy growing as a shrub

Watch out for poison ivy!  It is a fascinatingly cool plant but can also be dangerous.  This flowering specimen of poison ivy was collected on May 31, 1903 by John Shafer (the first curator of botany at Carnegie Museum) and O.P. Medsger in the Laurel Highlands of southwestern PA.

poison ivy herbarium sheet

What is Poison Ivy?

Poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans) is a woody vine found in forest understories, but does especially well on forest edges. It is very common in urban and suburban areas. It takes many forms, climbing high up a tree, along the ground, or even a short shrubby thing. The leaves take a range of shapes, but as the adage goes (“leaves of 3, let it be”), it has three leaflets.

poison ivy in a tree

Poison Ivy Chemistry – What Causes the Rash?

Poison ivy is known for its chemistry, producing a class of organic compounds call urushiol. These are found in the plant’s sap and on leaves/stems/roots. Urushiol causes a nasty rash to those who touch it. Not all people have a reaction (but most are sensitive). Don’t be too confident if you haven’t had a rash before – it can develop with repeated exposure.  Incredibly itchy, the rash can become a serious health issue if infected, especially if its oils get in contact with your eyes, face, or throat.  The rash can appear days after exposure and can last for weeks.

poison ivy rash

Research indicates poison ivy will get more poisonous with climate change, both in terms of growth and producing higher quantities of forms of urushiol particularly toxic to humans.

Is Poison Ivy a Weed?

Some people call Poison ivy because of its fear-causing rash, but it is native to eastern North America.  The species has a wide distribution across our region, and across the world (native subspecies in China). Although native, the species seems to be getting more common as we create more forest edge habitat.   The colorful foliage can be quite beautiful in the fall, and the berries are a food source for birds and other animals. Humans seem to be the only ones allergic to it.

poison ivy colored foliage in autumn
poison ivy berries

Plants Similar to Poison Ivy

Poison ivy is often confused with other non-poisonous and poisonous plants.

Some common confusions:

  1. Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), a vine in the grape but different leaves, and not with leaves of three
  2. Box elder maple (Acer negundo), a tree that has compound leaves unlike most stereotypical maples,  but with samaras (aka “helicopter” seeds)

Poison ivy and some other rash-causing plants are in the cashew family (Anacardiaceae) – which also includes poison oak (not found in Pennsylvania, but in western USA), staghorn sumac (not rash causing), poison sumac (rash causing, but you likely won’t come across it unless in very wet habitats)….and even a few familiar species like  pistachio,  cashew, and mango (some people are allergic).

What an amazing plant.

This specimen image is now publicly available online: http://midatlanticherbaria.org/portal/collections/individual/index.php?occid=12232529&clid=0

Check back for more! Botanists at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History share digital specimens from the herbarium on their collection dates. They have embarked on a three-year project to digitize nearly 190,000 plant specimens collected in the region (like Poison ivy!) making images and other data publicly available online. This effort is part of the Mid-Atlantic Megalopolis Project (mamdigitization.org), a network of thirteen herbaria spanning the densely populated urban corridor from Washington, D.C. to New York City to achieve a greater understanding of our urban areas, including the unique industrial and environmental history of the greater Pittsburgh region. This project is made possible by the National Science Foundation under grant no. 1801022.  

Mason Heberling is Assistant Curator of Botany at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History. Museum employees are encouraged to blog about their unique experiences and knowledge gained from working at the museum.

Filed Under: Blog Tagged With: Botany, conservation, herbarium, Mason Heberling, pennsylvania, plants

May 7, 2019 by wpengine

Everything Pennsylvania

On May 10th a new temporary exhibit is scheduled to be installed in Wertz Gallery: Gems and Jewelry that will feature gemstones, cabochons, polished spheres and carvings made from minerals unearthed in our own state of Pennsylvania. While we may be known as a coal producing state, there are lapidary and faceting grade minerals that are found in Pennsylvania as well. And, believe it or not, one of the polished pieces in the exhibit is a type of coal known as JET.

A carved egg made from JET, a type of LIGNITE which is a precursor to COAL.

The English noun “Jet” derives from the French word for the same material: jaiet (modern French “jais”). The adjective “jet-black,” meaning as dark a black as possible, derives from this material.

Another unusual piece in the exhibit is a carving of an elephant made from a translucent variety of ANTIGORITE known as WILLIAMSITE which is found in the State Line Chromite District in Lancaster County.

Elephant carved from WILLIAMSITE found at Lowe’s Chromite Mine in Fulton Township.

WILLIAMSITE was named in 1848 in honor of its discoverer, Lewis White Williams, a mineralogist and geologist of West Chester, Pennsylvania.

I don’t want to give away too much because I want you to come the museum to see the exhibit in person, but I will reveal two other pieces. They were personally collected at the Bingham Mine in Hamiltonban Township, Adams County, by the 1988 Carnegie Mineralogical Award winner, John Sinkankas, who also cut and polished them. The colors in these cabochons are due to the epidote and cuprite in the META-RHYOLITE, which is a silicified, or metamorphosed, RHYOLITE (an extrusive igneous rock).

META-RHYOLITE cabochons purchased from John Sinkankas in 1990.
META-RHYOLITE cabochons purchased from John Sinkankas in 1990.

Besides those pieces mentioned here, you will also see faceted gemstones of QUARTZ, AMETHYST, SMOKY QUARTZ, AQUAMARINE, and TITANITE; cabochons of MALACHITE, BLUE QUARTZ, SUNSTONE, and AMAZONITE; and polished spheres of COPPER & QUARTZ, and BLUE QUARTZ. The Cut and Polished Pennsylvania Gems and Minerals will be on exhibit in Wertz Gallery at least through the end of summer. Don’t miss it!

Debra Wilson is the Collection Manager for the Section of Minerals at Carnegie Museum of Natural History. Museum employees are encouraged to blog about their unique experiences and knowledge gained from working at the museum.

Filed Under: Blog Tagged With: coal, Deb Wilson, Debra Wilson, gems, gems and minerals, Hillman Hall, Hillman Hall of Minerals and Gems, minerals, pennsylvania, Wertz Gallery

February 6, 2019 by wpengine

Red Bird

By Patrick McShea

cardinal diorama

A detail in a Hall of Botany diorama can add much to our understanding of a popular songbird. Pictured above is a male Northern Cardinal, a species widely portrayed on cards and calendars amid snowy scenery.

Cardinals are certainly noticeable under winter conditions. The bright red of the male’s feathers and the reddish-brown plumage of the female stand out in snow covered landscapes. The range for this non-migratory species is enormous, however, and includes tropical regions.

The Hall of Botany bird, for example, adds color to a three-dimensional recreation of a tiny patch of Florida Everglades. Northern Cardinals have also long occupied suitable habitat much further south in Mexico and Guatemala.

The species, which has been deemed the official avian representative for seven U.S. states, was rarely seen anywhere in Pennsylvania until the 1890s. In Birds of Western Pennsylvania, the encyclopedic volume published in 1940 by the museum’s then Curator of Ornithology, W.E. Clyde Todd, growth of the local cardinal population is noted:

In recent years it has invaded the parks and residential sections of Pittsburgh in gradually increasing numbers, and it is seemingly as much at home there as it is in the wooded ravines in the vicinity of the city.”

cardinal diorama
tool box with painted cardinals

One measure of the Northern Cardinal’s continued popularity is requests by elementary teachers to borrow taxidermy mounts of the species from the museum’s Educator Loan Collection. Pictured above are a taxidermy mount and the “toolbox” it travels in. The illustration on the box is a recreation of John James Audubon’s cardinal portrait by Museum Educator Assistant John Franc.

Patrick McShea works in the Education and Visitor Experience department of Carnegie Museum of Natural History. Museum employees are encouraged to blog about their unique experiences and knowledge gained from working at the museum.

Filed Under: Blog Tagged With: bird hall, Birds, botany hall, Education, Educator Loans, Hall of Botany, Patrick McShea, pennsylvania, western pennsylvania

January 30, 2019 by wpengine

The Search for the Near Threatened Green Salamander, Aneides aeneus

By Kaylin Martin

green salamander
Photo credit: Aaron Semasko

Fueled by caffeine and the promise of a sighting of the elusive and threatened green salamander, I made my way to the assigned meeting point in Fayette County, Pennsylvania. I was told we would be meeting a contact that could lead us to his secret location wherein there was prime habitat for green salamanders. Slowly, a muddy truck approached us and motioned for us to follow him. Thirty minutes of unpaved, unmarked, pothole riddled roads later I was standing in front of a hillside with rough terrain.

I knew I was in for an intense hike. Green salamanders are found in rock crevices in outcroppings or on the sides of cliffs. Unlike most salamanders that can be found abundantly under damp logs or rocks, green salamanders are extreme habitat specialists. Because of their habitat requirements, these salamanders are considered Near Threatened by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The green salamander is listed as Endangered in Indiana, Ohio, Maryland, and Mississippi, as Threatened in Pennsylvania, and as Protected in Georgia. Some herpetologists argue that they should be nationally classified as Endangered, given that population sizes are decreasing due to habitat loss, drought and road development.

Armed with flashlights, our group of enthusiastic herpetologists made our way toward outcrops of rock along the hillside. We pointed our flashlights into every small crevice big enough to fit a salamander, hoping to see two large round eyes staring back at us. Within the first hour, we found a handful of common slimy salamanders, Plethodon glutinosus. Distinguished by their black color with silver or gold spots running along their backs, slimy salamanders are most known for the sticky substance they exude when threatened. Mostly found under logs or stones, the slimy salamander is also known to utilize its climbing abilities to crawl into crevices of shale banks, the same habitat that green salamanders favor.

green salamander

As I was photographing an eastern red-backed salamander, Plethodon cinereus, I heard a yelp of excitement, “A green! A GREEN!” A few agonizing minutes of scrambling through brambles and rocky terrain to get to my colleague ensued. As I approached, I was filled with excitement. Being the Curatorial Assistant of Amphibians and Reptiles allows me to catalogue specimens from all over the world, collected by renowned scientists in my field. This position gives me a platform to tell the public about why amphibians and reptiles are so important to our ecosystem. The thrill of seeing a Near Threatened salamander in its natural habitat reaffirmed my love for my career and the honor I feel in being an ambassador for amphibians and reptiles. Nothing beats the opportunity to photograph the species camouflaged into the moss around it, or the few minutes where you promise yourself and the species in front of you that your life’s goal is to promote environmental awareness of Pennsylvania herpetofauna (reptiles and amphibians), and the hope that maybe the green salamander will thrive in Pennsylvania in the age of the Anthropocene.

What can you do? Check out the Pennsylvania Amphibians and Reptiles Survey at https://paherpsurvey.org/.If you find an amphibian or reptile, take a photo and send it to the PA Herp Survey to help document the biodiversity and status of Pennsylvania herpetofauna.

Kaylin Martin, M.Sc, is the curatorial assistant in the Section of Amphibians and Reptiles. Museum employees are encouraged to blog about their unique experiences and knowledge gained from working at the museum.

Filed Under: Blog Tagged With: amphibians, amphibians and reptiles, Anthropocene, herpetology, Kaylin Martin, pennsylvania, reptiles

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