Blogs from Powdermill Nature Reserve

Powdermill Nature Reserve is Carnegie Museum of Natural History’s environmental research center. Located 55 miles southeast of Pittsburgh in Rector, Pennsylvania, Powdermill is a field station and laboratory where researchers do long-term studies of natural populations in western Pennsylvania. In addition to being positioned for Appalachian-specific studies in ornithology, ecology, invertebrate zoology, and botany, Powdermill is a great place to spend a fun-filled day outdoors with the family.

January 21, 2022 by Erin Southerland

“Mush-room” for Exploration

by Sara Klingensmith

Mushrooms are becoming popular! Visitors to Powdermill Nature Reserve often bring photos of colorful mushrooms in hopes of learning the identity of each. On nature hikes, the appearance of eccentric mushrooms such as viscid violet cort (Cortinarius iodes), stinky squid (Pseudocolus fusiformis), and some of the color-changing boletes (family Boletaceae) expand perspectives of what exists in nature. People are beginning to pay more attention to these understudied organisms and discovering that fungi do more than decompose. Fungi assist in many ecological processes such as symbiotic partnerships, carbon storage, primary colonization, and parasitism.

How Do We Know When and Where to Find Mushrooms?

Across this vast Kingdom of organisms, only some fungi deploy the charismatic spore-bearing structures we casually call mushrooms when certain environmental conditions are met. Scientifically speaking, these recognizable structures are termed macrofungi (visible sporocarps or fruitbodies). Among the various groupings of fungi, two produce macrofungi we are likely to notice during nature walks: Basidiomycota (external spore production or “club fungi”) and Ascomycota (internal spore production or “sac fungi”).

A mushroom is only the reproductive structure of a fungus. For many species, spores produced within hymenophores (reproductive structures such as gills or pores) are released through an active process called ballistospory. Wind, rain, and animals may help further spore dispersal. The bulk of a fungus lies in the root-like mycelial network within a nourishing substrate (its food). Leaf litter, soil, plants, scat, and even other fungi are all different types of substrates for fungi.

Determining when we will see the most mushrooms erupting from their substrates is challenging because there are multitudes of factors influencing fungal communities. Like many organisms, certain species will thrive better in certain habitats and elevations. Some fungi are tied to their host’s health, phenology, and life stage, which may also be influenced by forest management practices and climate change. Because fungi are fundamentally interwoven with their environment, these organisms undergo succession along with whole forest communities, and even on a single growth substrate.

four different mushrooms held in a hand — Examples of Basidiomycete mushrooms; left to right: coral-shaped fungi (probable families: Clavulinaceae and Gomphaceae), waxy cap (*Hygrocybe sp*.), viscid violet cort (*Cortinarius iodes*), and Eastern black trumpet (*Craterellus fallax*)

collage of three different mushrooms — Examples of Ascomycete mushrooms; top left: morel (*Morchella sp*.), bottom left: yellow fairy cups (*Calycina citrina*), and right: eyelash cups (*Scutellinia sp*.).

Through general observations, we have determined certain species have seasonal fruiting periods. Experienced foragers learn from experience when to search for morels, and we’ve likewise learned when to expect the fruiting of many other fungi species. Some fruitbodies are ephemeral, whereas others produce mushrooms that may persist on trees for years. While the presence of mycelium is generally linked to the appearance of mushrooms, some studies have observed an uncoupling of factors equating abundant mycelium with high sporocarp production. These findings apply particularly to fungi that form symbiotic relationships with plants—the ectomycorrhizal fungi (symbiotic macrofungi)! This fungal phenomenon has been observed in a few ectomycorrhizal species. For example, research that examined the relationship between mycelial and sporocarp abundance of Boletus edulis, also known as the king bolete, found no correlation between sporocarp production and distribution and the abundance of below-ground mycelium. This means some species of mycorrhizal fungi can appear abundant above ground, but lack a robust underground network expected to support such a high sporocarp population. Therefore, aboveground species richness may not reflect mycelial productivity for some species.

Current research suggests that soil moisture and temperature highly influence the appearance of mushrooms. For example, a dry spell may reduce sporocarp production by 50% in pine forests, yet the mycelial networks presumably continue their cryptic business below the soil surface. Research in the Mediterranean region suggests that precipitation is a limiting factor for sporocarp production for both mycorrhizal and saprotrophic fungi; however, more research is needed to examine these factors in different regions and habitats.

While fungi lack the mechanisms to use photosynthesis, light plays a role in growing mushrooms. Many fungi species show phototropic responses by growing towards light sources, with certain species failing to produce mushrooms in the absence of light.

While the appearance of mushrooms can be seasonal and highly variable, searching after a good rainy period might improve your chances of finding some fantastic fungi! Listed below are a handful of species found at Powdermill, along with simple charts of their seasonal observation trends obtained from iNaturalist, a free online site and app promoting community science. Thanks to participating community members, these graphs reflect observation frequencies across seasons in the state of Pennsylvania. The green line represents research grade observations, meaning more than two-thirds of the identifiers agree on the identification. The gray line represents verifiable observations that have yet to attain research grade status. Because observations are on-going, these graphs may change as more data accumulates.

purple jelly disk mushrooms and graph showing seasonality — Purple jellydisk (*Ascocoryne sarcoides*) – saprotrophic fungi that are typically found on decaying hardwoods.

violet webcap mushrooms and graph showing seasonality — Violet webcap (*Cortinarius violaceus*) – mycorrhizal fungi found in beech and oak forests.

honey mushrooms and graph showing seasonality — Honey mushroom (*Armillaria mellea*) – parasitic/saprotrophic fungi found in oak dominated forests.

birch polypore and graph showing seasonality — Birch polypore (*Fomitopsis betulina*) – parasitic/saprotrophic fungi commonly associated with birch trees.

Sara Klingensmith is an Environmental Educator and Naturalist at Powdermill Nature Reserve. Museum employees are encouraged to blog about their unique experiences and knowledge gained from working at the museum.

Sources

Alday, J., Martínez de Aragón, J., de-Miguel, S. et al. Mushroom biomass and diversity are driven by different spatio-temporal scales along Mediterranean elevation gradients. Sci Rep 7, 45824 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep45824

Binion, E. Denise, et al. Macrofungi Associated With Oaks of Eastern North America, West Virginia University Press, 2008.

Ekblad, A. et al. The production and turnover of extrametrical mycelium of ectomycorrhizal fungi in forest soils: role in carbon cycling. Plant Soil (2013) 366: 1-27.

De la Varga, Herminia & Águeda, Beatriz & Martínez-Peña, Fernando & Parladé, Javier & Pera, Joan. Quantification of extraradical soil mycelium and ectomycorrhizas of Boletus edulis in a Scots pine forest with variable sporocarp productivity. Mycorrhiza. 22. 59-68. (2011) 10.1007/s00572-011-0382-2.

De la Varga, H., Águeda, B., Martínez-Peña, F. et al. Quantification of extraradical soil mycelium and ectomycorrhizas of Boletus edulis in a Scots pine forest with variable sporocarp productivity. Mycorrhiza 22, 59–68 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00572-011-0382-2

De la Varga, H., Águeda, B., Ágreda, T. et al. Seasonal dynamics of Boletus edulis and Lactarius deliciosus extraradical mycelium in pine forests of central Spain. Mycorrhiza 23, 391–402 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00572-013-0481-3

Štursová M, Kohout P, Human ZR, Baldrian P. Production of Fungal Mycelia in a Temperate Coniferous Forest Shows Distinct Seasonal Patterns. Journal of Fungi. 2020; 6(4):190. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof6040190

iNatualist.org

MushroomExpert.com

Lodge, D. J. et al. Terrestrial and Lignicolous Macrofungi. 2004. 10.1016/B978-012509551-8/50011-8.

2021 Rector Christmas Bird Count Results

by Annie Lindsay

All week leading up to the Christmas Bird Count (CBC), the weather forecast threatened heavy rain for December 18, 2021, but that did not deter a group of 34 dedicated birders from going outside and counting birds all day! In fact, after a touch of rain before dawn, the weather cleared, and the day was mostly cloudy, pleasant, and perfect for birding. And what a Christmas Bird Count it was! The birders, along with six people who counted birds visiting their feeders and yards, tallied 7,239 birds of 79 species, broke the high-count records for several species, and added two new species that had never been seen during the Rector CBC before!

ruffed grouse on a branch in winter — Ruffed Grouse, photo by Alex Busato. Pennsylvania’s state bird can be difficult to find due to its well-camouflaged plumage and declining population, but one posed nicely on Laurel Moutain during this year’s Christmas Bird Count.

Christmas Bird Count History

The CBC is an annual tradition that began on Christmas in 1900. Participants counted birds they saw or heard all day, a step away from previous bird censuses during which people used shotguns to collect and count birds. The original group of 27 birders tallying birds in 25 count circles has now become an international event, sponsored by the National Audubon Society, with nearly 3,000 count circles spread across the Western Hemisphere. The compilers for each count circle choose a date between December 14 and January 5, and participants tally every bird they encounter within a designated 15-mile diameter circle. With such a large geographic range and over 100 years of data, the CBC is one of the largest community science projects. The data gathered has been used to study population trends and over 200 peer-reviewed publications have used CBC data.

The Rector count circle is centered just northwest of Powdermill Nature Reserve. Its variety of habitat types along an elevational gradient is excellent for species diversity. Begun in 1974, the Rector count has consistently tallied more than 50 species every year, with the highest species counts of 88 in 2012 and 80 in 2009. This year’s total of 79 species was the third highest in this count’s history! Although there are core species, like chickadees and cardinals, that we expect to see every year, rarities occasionally pop up, and Rector counters have tallied 131 species since 1974.

2021 Rector Christmas Bird Count Numbers and Highlights

The 2021 count started at 4:30 a.m. with several birders searching for owls. Despite the drizzle, the owlers counted three Great Horned Owls, three Barred Owls, a surprise Northern Saw-whet Owl that was spotted in headlights as it flew across the road, and an incredible 17 Eastern Screech-Owls, a number that shattered the previous record of 11. Off to a great start, the owlers were joined by the bulk of the participants to survey their assigned sectors within the count circle, and there were many surprises in store.

two eastern screech owls held in hands — Eastern Screech-Owls, gray morph and red morph. Although not encountered as frequently due to their nocturnal habits, Eastern Screech-Owls are a common species in our area. CBCers shattered the previous high count record for this species during this year’s count, tallying a total of 17 individuals!

At the end of the day, counters met at Powdermill for the tally dinner to report what they’d seen and share stories from the field. As we tallied, we quickly noticed that we were setting new high-count records, or tying existing records, for many species, including Ring-necked Duck, Bufflehead, Red-breasted Merganser, Black Vulture, Eastern Screech-Owl, Northern Saw-whet Owl (tie), Red-bellied Woodpecker, Yellow-bellied Sapsucker, Northern Flicker, Merlin (tie), Common Raven, Ruby-crowned Kinglet (tie), Eastern Bluebird, Hermit Thrush, American Robin, Gray Catbird, Yellow-rumped warbler, White-throated Sparrow, and Eastern Towhee.

The owls certainly set new records due to the increased effort to find them this year: screech owls are a common species in our area, and saw-whets, although quite difficult to find and usually not vocal at this time of year, are likely here in the appropriate habitat.

gray catbird — Gray Catbird. A species that winters from coastal Massachusetts through Central America, catbirds have popped up during the Rector Christmas Bird Count in the past. However, this year we tallied three catbirds, which is quite unusual.

We noticed an interesting trend in the species with high counts: most are species that tend to spend the winter a bit south of us, or if they are species that are expected during the Rector CBC, their winter range tends not to extend much farther north of us and we generally do not expect them in high numbers. We speculate that the combination of a late fall, mild temperatures through the end of 2021, and an abundance of berries may have contributed to some individuals of these shorter-distance migrants not migrating as far south as they usually do.

Our biggest surprises were two new species that had never been encountered during the Rector CBC before. The first was a Palm Warbler reported on a farm in Ligonier foraging with a flock of Yellow-rumped Warblers on the edge of a cow pasture. Palm Warblers are seen annually in our area during migration, and we band several of them at Powdermill every year. Many Palm Warblers spend the winter in the southeastern US, but it is not expected in southwest Pennsylvania in the winter. The second species was a Surf Scoter spotted at Donegal Lake. Surf Scoters are a species of duck usually seen in the ocean along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts in winter, or perhaps on the Great Lakes or human-made lakes if they’re forced down by bad weather during migration. This is a very unusual species for our area and an excellent find.

As we submit the Rector count’s data to Audubon and wrap up another CBC, we thank all of the participants and look forward to the 2022 count!

Annie Lindsay is the Bird Banding Program Manager at Carnegie Museum of Natural History’s Powdermill Nature Reserve. Museum employees are encouraged to blog about their unique experiences and knowledge gained from working at the museum.

60 Years, One Bird at a Time

by Mary Shidel, with special thanks to Pam Curtin, for her detailed history of the Powdermill Bird Banding Program

On June 18, 1961, a small brown bird with hints of blue on its wings and tail left its shrubby perch or perhaps its nest and flew into a soft nylon net. Little did this Indigo Bunting know that she would be the first data point in a long history of bird banding at the Powdermill Nature Reserve. Bob Leberman carefully extracted the bunting from the net, placed it in a bag for transport, then attached a small, almost weightless metal band to her leg, and collected data for age, sex, wing length and mass. Within minutes she was out flitting through the vegetation foraging for food. This same process has continued for 60 years, one bird at a time—capture, band, collect data, and release.

Powdermill Nature Reserve is the biological field station of Carnegie Museum of Natural History. In 1961, Bob Leberman, who had experience banding birds in Erie and near his hometown of Meadville, Pennsylvania, was hired by the museum’s director, Dr. Graham Netting, to establish a banding program at the Nature Reserve. Over the first decade or so the program evolved as Bob experimented with net sizes and placement, and honed skills and techniques for ageing and sexing that are still widely used today. In September 1961, a large pond was constructed and christened “Crisp Pond” after the village that used to exist nearby, and in 1975 two smaller ponds were added with shallower habitat for wading birds.

white building with tall evergreen trees behind it

In the early days, Bob banded from mid-March to mid-November. It wasn’t until 1974, when a permanent residence was established at the reserve for him, that Bob became the first person in the country to band year-round. By 1970, as Bob’s research expanded, a nearby garage and service building were repurposed into a laboratory and office space for the Banding Program.

A 1967 publication of the Carnegie Museum notes that “one of the most valuable assets” of Powdermill Bird Banding is the “considerable effort made to keep data consistent and comparable.” This is still true sixty years later. Just as Bob did in the early days, nets are opened one half hour before sunrise and checked every forty minutes (or adjusted if necessary due to weather conditions). Nets are kept in the same exact location from year to year, and net lanes are trimmed frequently to keep the vegetation surrounding the nets in an early successional state rather than just letting the forest overtake the banding area.

Data consistency and integrity is also still paramount at the banding lab. Over the years, very few people have held the “bander in charge” position, and those collecting the data work closely to calibrate measurements and methods. Amazingly, of the 800,000 records now in the banding database, Bob Leberman, who retired in 2004, collected the data for almost half! In 1983, Bob Mulvihill, whose connection to the banding program began as a volunteer four years earlier, joined Bob Leberman as Powdermill’s second full-time bander. Through the efforts of both “Bobs” the program grew and expanded. In 2004, in a recognition of ongoing research projects beyond the scope of the bird banding program, the lab was renamed “Powdermill Avian research Center,” a name frequently abbreviated as PARC.

The number of people who have supported the banding program in small and great ways over the years is much too vast to name here, but the program could never have grown and flourished without the thousands of volunteer hours and strong support from the staff at both Carnegie Museum of Natural History and Powdermill Nature Reserve. Generous funding from private donors and foundations over the years has extended the influence of PARC both nationally and globally.

Today, PARC is under the direction of Lucas DeGroote, Avian Research Coordinator, with Annie Lindsay, Banding Program Manager, directing day-to-day operations at the Banding Lab. Countless avenues of research focus on finding new ways to help birds. Each banding day, Annie and her staff will be opening nets before sunrise, checking the nets every forty minutes, and safely collecting and measuring the birds, growing the database and avian knowledge, one bird at a time.

And so the tradition continues…

Mary Shidel is a Banding Assistant at Powdermill Nature Reserve, Carnegie Museum of Natural History’s environmental research center. Museum employees blog about their unique experiences and knowledge gained from working at the museum.

Milestones at Powdermill’s Banding Lab

by Annie Lindsay

On the morning of July 11, 2001, Powdermill’s bird banding crew knew that was the day they’d catch the program’s 500,000th banding record (which includes new birds and recaptured birds). With only 10 birds to go, each person on the field crew guessed what species #500,000 would be, then set out on a net round together. As we checked each net, our eager anticipation grew with each bird we extracted. It turned out that I, a young, green banding intern, guessed correctly: number 500,000 was a Gray Catbird, a very common species at Powdermill during the breeding season, and a charismatically sassy species that endears itself to many banders and birders.

Man holding a bird outside. — *Bob Leberman, founder of Powdermill’s bird banding program, with the 500,000th banding record, a Gray Catbird, caught and banded on July 11, 2001.*

We released #500,000, celebrated with sparkling grape juice, then continued the banding day with a demonstration for children attending Powdermill’s summer camp. The catbird was made famous in the local newspaper, and because we’d each wagered a dollar on our guesses, I earned a $5 bill with the catbird’s band number on it for correctly guessing the species. That year marked the 40th anniversary of Powdermill’s banding program, and another milestone about two months prior: the 400,000th new bird banded.

Over the next two decades, the number of birds banded continued to creep up. Before spring migration this year, we determined that we needed just over 5,000 birds to reach 800,000 banding records. The countdown was on, and by mid-summer we knew that we could expect to reach that number by early- to mid-August, perfect timing to celebrate the banding program’s 60th anniversary.

The morning of August 6 was the day! With 45 birds to go after banding on August 5, we knew 800,000 was within sight. We opened the nets at 5:50 a.m., but the first two net checks yielded surprisingly fewer birds than we expected. At the 7:50 a.m. net check, we still had 20 birds to go, and given the pace of the morning we assumed The Bird wouldn’t be caught until the following round, so the banding crew set out in different directions to clear the nets. About five minutes later our long-term volunteer and colleague, Nick, radioed back to say that he had 11 birds in the second set of nets he was checking! The nets in the other directions had only a few birds, so we all converged on Nick’s location, and the final countdown began with five birds to go.

Two people outside removing birds from mist nets. — *Kevin Chumpitaz and Nick Liadis, part of Powdermill’s banding crew, extracting birds #799,993 and #799,994.*

The next three sets of nets were empty, but Long Lane, a series of nine nets connected in a long line, delivered a Black-and-White Warbler, a Black-throated Green Warbler, a Gray Catbird, and a Canada Warbler. With number 800,000 just ahead, Mallory, PARC’s Motus and banding assistant, called back to the rest of us, “It’s here!” Our milestone bird was a young Cedar Waxwing, a species that is quite common at Powdermill during the migration and breeding seasons, and often is spotted in nomadic flocks during the winter.

Cedar Waxwing held in a hand outside — *Powdermill’s 800,000th banding record, a young Cedar Waxwing, caught and banded on August 6, 2021.*

Just beyond the waxwing was another Gray Catbird, which concluded the net round. We all made our way back to the lab where we banded the celebrity waxwing, recorded the usual data (age, sex, measurements, and mass), snapped a few photos and a quick video, and then released the bird.

Based on the waxwing’s plumage, we know that it hatched this summer, and it displayed an interesting plumage characteristic that is relatively common in young waxwings in southwest Pennsylvania. Cedar Waxwings have a yellow terminal band on their tails, but if an individual eats invasive honeysuckle berries while feathers are growing, the pigment from the berries, called rhodoxanthin, is incorporated into the yellow parts of the growing feathers. Honeysuckle berries are plentiful at Powdermill, and are ripe when young Cedar Waxwings are still in the nest and growing their first set of feathers. If they’re fed these berries, their tails have an orange tail band instead of the normal yellow! Adult waxwings molt when the berries are no longer ripe, so their tails have a yellow stripe. This phenomenon is a great example of how introduced plants can affect their environment.

Woman holding a bird outside — *Annie Lindsay with the 800,000th banding record.*

In keeping with previous milestones at Powdermill, #800,000 is a common species: Cedar Waxwing is the sixth most banded species at Powdermill, with over 24,000 of them banded in our 60-year history. We often like to attach meaning to notable events, and Cedar Waxwings lend themselves to this one in particular: the aberration in tail stripe pigmentation was described by Powdermill banders in a paper published in 1992, and the species was a favorite of the founder of Powdermill’s bird banding program, Bob Leberman.

Five-dollar bill with writing on the edges commemorating the 500,000th bird banding record at Powdermill. — *The commemorative $5 bill for guessing correctly what species the 500,000th banding record would be.*

I still have the $5 bill with #500,000’s band number on it, and feel honored to have been part of both milestones at Powdermill. The crew didn’t place bets on what species #800,000 might be, but several had guesses, and I was sure it would be another catbird. Cedar Waxwing was an excellent surprise, and we’re all looking forward to #900,000 and #1,000,000 in the coming years!

Who put the Smile in Smilax?

by John Wenzel

The genus Smilax is one of our most common woodland plants. Known as greenbriar, sweetbriar, or catbriar, there are about 20 species in North America, and about 300 world-wide. Technically, the plant is defended by “prickles,” which are outgrowths of the outer tissue of the stem, and not “thorns,” which are modified woody branches, as are found on hawthorn or locust trees. By contrast, “spines,” as found in cactuses, are actually modified leaves. Male and female Smilax flowers occur on different plants, with females producing dense bunches of showy black, blue, or red berries. Some species are deciduous and some are evergreen. Light loving, they are typical of disturbed habitats, and will climb up and over shrubs, up to 30 feet high. The green stems have chlorophyll, meaning that even if deer eat all the leaves, the plants will continue to photosynthesize and survive.

Thickets of briars that have their tops bitten off are an indication of severe browsing by deer. When deer densities are high, other plants may be browsed out entirely, leaving behind an understory composed of only briars and a few plants deer do not eat, such as ferns. Briars may provide good cover for small mammals to escape from larger predators, as is related in Uncle Remus’ African folktales of Bre’r Rabbit. The stout prickles have different orientations along a stem and can be difficult to remove if more than one pierces the skin at the same time. Getting into (and out of!) a briar thicket is a very sticky situation, as we have inadvertently demonstrated after a minor slip-and-fall in the woods!

Close up of man's face with blood on it after injury from briar prickles.

John Wenzel is the Director at Powdermill Nature Reserve, Carnegie Museum of Natural History’s environmental research center. Museum employees are encouraged to blog about their unique experiences and knowledge gained from working at the museum.

Can’t Touch This

by Andrea Kautz

From the name of them, you may guess “blister beetles” are insects you might not want to handle. However, they sure are beautiful to look at! We’ve been noticing blister beetles out and about at Powdermill over the last week or so. Some fly around clumsily, while other flightless species scurry among the leaf litter. Beetles in this family (Meloidae) secrete a defensive substance called cantharidin, a skin irritant that can cause blistering. They are also very toxic when consumed, and can be fatal for livestock if present in the hay supply.

Shiny blue blister beetle on a rock. — Two different genera of blister beetles that are common in SW Pennsylvania: *Lytta* (top) and *Meloe* (bottom). Top image credit: Shaun Pogacnik. Bottom image credit: Christian Grenier.

Blister beetles are parasites, mostly in the nests of ground-nesting bees and wasps. Watch this short video clip to learn more about their life cycle. Spoiler alert: In this species, the newly hatched beetle larvae clump together and attract a male bee using a fragrance, and then transfer to the female he mates with, ultimately gaining access to her nest, where they feed on both the pollen provisions and the bee larvae themselves!

Whether larvae or adults, these striking beetles certainly have a fascinating dark side. There is always more than meets the eye when it comes to entomology!

Andrea Kautz is a Research Entomologist at Carnegie Museum of Natural History’s Powdermill Nature Reserve. Museum employees are encouraged to blog about their unique experiences and knowledge gained from working at the museum.

“Mush-room” for Exploration

by Sara Klingensmith

How Do We Know When and Where to Find Mushrooms?

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Carnegie Museum of Natural History Blog Citation Information

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2021 Rector Christmas Bird Count Results

by Annie Lindsay

Christmas Bird Count History

2021 Rector Christmas Bird Count Numbers and Highlights

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Carnegie Museum of Natural History Blog Citation Information

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60 Years, One Bird at a Time

by Mary Shidel, with special thanks to Pam Curtin, for her detailed history of the Powdermill Bird Banding Program

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Carnegie Museum of Natural History Blog Citation Information

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Milestones at Powdermill’s Banding Lab

by Annie Lindsay

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Who put the Smile in Smilax?

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Can’t Touch This

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Carnegie Museum of Natural History Blog Citation Information

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