Blogs from our Scientific Researchers

Carnegie Museum of Natural History is home to active research and vast scientific collections. Our scientific researchers regularly contribute to the blog at the museum.

August 23, 2022 by Erin Southerland

GETTING FROM THE FERN HOLLOW BRIDGE TO THE FRICK FAMILY

by Lisa Miriello

*A view of Forbes Avenue bridge crossing over Fern Hollow in Frick Park, 1914. Pittsburgh City Photographer Collection, University of Pittsburgh.*

After the Fern Hollow Bridge collapse on January 28, 2022, many commuters found themselves experiencing some traffic headaches as they scrambled to find different ways to and from work or school. My new route takes me past The Frick Pittsburgh, a museum complex in the Point Breeze section of Pittsburgh that includes Clayton, the former home of industrialist Henry Clay Frick.

As someone who works in the Section of Mammals, my thoughts while passing the stately grounds often turn to Frick’s son Childs (1883-1965), who grew up here exploring the woods surrounding the estate and attending Sterrett School (now Sterrett Classical Academy), less than a third of a mile away.

*Photographer unknown, American,* Sterrett School, c. 1900, gelatin silver printing-out paper print, H: 7 1/2 in. x W: 10 5/8 in., Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh, Second Century Acquisition Fund, 1999.34.2, Photograph © 2021 Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh.

As Childs grew older his early interest in the natural world turned to more scientific pursuits, and he embarked on a series of collecting expeditions in North America followed by visits to Africa, first in 1909 and again in 1911. But Childs wasn’t looking for “trophies.” By collecting animals at different life stages his goal was to further the knowledge of the lifestyle and habitats of these unfamiliar animals. Many of these specimens were gifted to the Carnegie Museum, and as the shipments arrived from overseas the staff taxidermists had their hands full.

Led by brothers Remi and Joseph Santens these skilled artisans created expressive animal likenesses rather than the static displays that were seen in most museums at the time. Both Santens even visited zoos in New York and Washington, DC, to study the movements of living animals. Preserved plant life from Africa provided even more authenticity to the displays. The African Buffalo (Syncerus caffer) group was especially notable in how it was depicted. The animals appear to be spattered with mud and tramping through brush, a display then-Director W. J. Holland believed to be the first instance in which exhibition specimens had been accurately placed within their supporting environment. In the Carnegie Museum’s 1913 Annual Report he wrote that the group “may possibly provoke comment and criticism, but it is believed to be a step in the right direction, and will likely be followed by the leading taxidermists of the future.“ You can see the African Buffalo, along with other specimens collected by Frick, in the museum’s Hall of African Wildlife.

*Carnegie Museum of Natural History, photo by Mindy McNaugher*.

While Childs enriched the collection of the natural history museum, other family members left an impact on the city of Pittsburgh as well. His father, Henry Clay Frick (1849-1919), bequeathed 151 acres of land that would become Frick Park. Expanded by hundreds of acres over the years, it’s now the largest of the city’s parks.

Childs’ sister, Helen Clay Frick (1888-1984), was an art collector like her father and helped establish the Henry Clay Frick Fine Arts Library at the University of Pittsburgh. She later had the Frick Art Museum constructed on Clayton’s grounds to showcase her collection of art. This cultural resource opened to the public in 1970.

At the end of the day, as my car inches past the peaceful grounds of Clayton, I imagine traffic must have looked a little different over a hundred years ago when “horseless carriages,” horse-drawn vehicles, trolleys, and bicycles all shared the same road in a free-for-all. Today, with traffic signals and defined lanes, at least it’s more of an ordered chaos.

A view of a portion of Grant Boulevard populated with a mixture of automobiles, a horse with buggy, and a bicycle in the background. Grant Boulevard was renamed Bigelow Boulevard in 1916. Thomas Mellon Galey Photographs, Detre Library & Archives, Senator John Heinz History Center
*Grant Boulevard | Historic Pittsburgh*

Museums and parks can provide welcome relief in a chaotic world, and the Frick family’s contributions to these sanctuaries of art, science, and nature will be enjoyed for generations to come.

Lisa Miriello is the Scientific Preparator for the Section of Mammals.

Scientists Call for New Research Studying the Combined Effects of Climate Change and Urbanization on Body Size Across Species

Rhacophorus dulitensis (jade tree frog). Photo by Dr. Jennifer Sheridan, Carnegie Museum of Natural History

Researchers from Carnegie Museum of Natural History have described impacts of climate change and land use on the size of organisms. Dr. Jennifer Sheridan, Assistant Curator of Amphibians and Reptiles, and Dr. Amanda Martin, post-doctoral researcher, review the causes that lead to changes in size as well as ecological interactions, while making the case for more research studying the combined effects of climate change and urbanization. The paper, entitled “Body size responses to the combined effects of climate and land use changes within an urban framework,” was published in in the journal Global Change Biology on June 27.

Body size is considered one of the most important traits of an organism, affecting thermal regulation, mobility, reproductive output, and capacity to acquire resources. Over many generations, body sizes usually increase within lineages. Recent observations, however, show a decrease in size over relatively short time periods. This could have profound ramifications for individual organisms and ecosystems alike. For example, size-related reproductive success means that interacting populations in the same location will be dominated by smaller species, leading to long-term changes in predator-prey dynamics. Most research suggests climate change as the primary driver of changes in size, but emerging research indicates that land use—especially urbanization—may also contribute.

Human-induced climate change has significantly altered temperatures since the 1950s, and temperature affects the size of organisms. At roughly the same time, the Earth has experienced rapid urbanization and a tripling of the human population. Unlike climate change, urbanization has been shown to cause an increase in size of some organisms due to the advantage size has on mobility, and the greater availability of food and other resources. Urbanization does not affect all organisms equally; however, and some species—including some birds—are unable to take advantage of food abundance in urban settings and have become smaller.

“There is a gap in the literature,” says Dr. Sheridan. “Given that climate change and urbanization are projected to continue their rapid growth, there is an urgency to understanding how their respective effects may be working in concert. Specimens from museum collections are a unique data source that can shed light on changes in size with respect to climate and land use changes over time.”

Sheridan and Martin recommend several steps researchers can take to better understand biodiversity loss and ultimately work toward species conservation. These include expanding the taxonomic and geographic scope of research–including the use of museum collections; increasing the use of quantitative data—such as impervious surface area–over categorical data such as urban versus rural zones; and increasing the testing of climate change and land use interactions. Better understanding of the combined effects of climate change and urbanization is imperative for responding to rapid environmental change.

July 15, 2022 by Erin Southerland

A Deep Look Inside Reptiles and Amphibians

by Ian N. Roa

*Fig. 1 – Head and neck portions of a* Boa sp. *skeleton.*

Museums are integral to our communities because they are institutions that provide public education and outreach to better understand the world we live in. Visitors often think of museums in terms of displays, animal taxidermy mounts in dioramas, or jars of preserved amphibians, for example, but much of the important work of museums occurs behind the scenes. I developed a clear understanding of this situation through two different interactions with the Section of Amphibians and Reptiles at Carnegie Museum of Natural History.

I am an archaeology graduate student at the University of Pittsburgh (Pitt), and I met Stevie Kennedy-Gold, the Collection Manager for the Section of Amphibians and Reptiles, in 2019 when her assistance helped me answer a research question. I specialize in zooarchaeology, that is the of study animals in archeological contexts, in the Maya lowlands of western Belize. Unfortunately, due to the wet, humid climate of the jungle, preservation of bone is not always the greatest. There exists, however, a necklace made of vertebrae that was found still clutched in the hand of an ancient Maya elite. Based upon several characteristics of each vertebra, I knew the necklace was made up of reptile but could not deduce anything more specific. When I reached out to Stevie, she helped me figure out that the necklace was made of bones from numerous snakes! The significance of finding out what kind of animal the necklace was made from helps us to understand the ways humans interacted with their environment, in this case animals who share the same landscape. Even more exciting is the cosmological importance of the serpent to the Maya culture where the creatures primarily symbolize rebirth and renewal.

This positive experience of having my doctoral research aided by a museum collection convinced me of how important it is to make sure such resources are well managed for generations to come. When I reached out to Stevie for a second time, it was to offer my time in the Section of Amphibians and Reptiles for any project I could assist. When we got started, I was asked to help catalog the osteological inventory of reptiles and amphibians, which is fitting as Stevie has nicknamed me “the bone guy” for my specialty as a zooarchaeologist. The work involves locating each specimen, identifying which components of the skeleton are present, and noting any articulation or soft tissue (such as skin) that may be present. Any necessary steps for later upkeep to maintain preservation is also recorded, procedures such as cleaning skeletal pieces, removing dead dermestid beetles, and transferring specimens to new storage boxes. This experience has allowed me to further familiarize myself with diverse taxonomic groups and even inflammatory and autoimmune pathologies (Fig. 2)!

*Fig. 2 – Osteological inflammatory growth along the axial and appendicular parts of this squamate skeleton due to disease.*

Though it is an arduous task to organize and record the entire osteological collection between Stevie, a couple of section work-studies, and myself, it is also a load of fun (or perhaps torturous levels of organization is my crazy idea of fun). No, really! As we go through each cabinet, drawer, and box we stumble across some really fantastic skeletons of lizards, snakes, crocodiles, turtles, and more (Fig. 3). One of my favorites was of an Asian water monitor (Varanus salvator), because it is the oldest specimen in the entire herpetology collection at CMNH, and even includes a beautiful hand-written record of this original skeleton.

*Fig. 3 –* Trioceros jacksonii, *commonly known as the Jackson’s chameleon. The males are easily identified by the three large horns protruding from their faces.*

*Fig. 4 – Commonly known as the Asian water monitor (*Varan salvator), this skeleton was collected in 1870 and is actually the oldest specimen in the collection, wet or dry.

Ian N. Roa is an archaeology graduate student at the University of Pittsburgh.

A Trip to Grave Creek Mound

by Amy L. Covell-Murthy

It was my pleasure to organize a field trip for Anthropology and Anthropocene staff, students, and friends to the Grave Creek Mound Archaeological Complex in Moundsville, West Virginia. Our gracious host, Dr. Olivia Jones, who is the facility’s lead curator showed us around the complex while explaining the history of the facility and of the mound. She also provided us with plenty to explore on our own.

Maintaining a relationship between Carnegie Museum of Natural History and the Grave Creek Mound Complex has been a highlight of my responsibilities as collection manager over the past five years. Dr. Jones and I work hard to keep each other informed of current research and initiatives in our institutions, while sharing resources that pertain to the history of the region.

Group of people in a canoe in a museum — *This picture shows the Carnegie crew posing in a dugout canoe that was commissioned from artists of the Seneca Nation/Onöhsagwë:de’ Cultural Center.*

Adena is the name given by archaeologists to the mound building cultural group who developed around 2500 years ago in the Ohio River Valley and many of its major tributaries. The Grave Creek Mound, now located in the center of a town whose name references the structure, is one of the largest of the conical Adena burial mounds. Dr. Jones, curator Hank Lutton, and the staff of the Archaeological Complex work to maintain the integrity of this National Historic Landmark. According to their website, the mound was constructed between 250 and 150 B.C.E. and in 1838 it was measured as being 69 feet tall, and 295 feet in diameter.

*The Grave Creek Mound from a walkway near the base of the 2,000-year-old structure.*

In addition to the mound, the complex consists of an archaeological research and collection facility, and the Delf Norona Museum, which interprets lifeways of the Adena people for the public. The museum, named for the author of the mound’s definitive history, opened its doors in 1978, and the research facility was constructed later in 2008. This facility is the repository for all of West Virginia’s State-owned collections and artifacts.

Although our exhibits do not explain the arrangement, Carnegie Museum of Natural History once served as a repository for the State Museum of Pennsylvania for all cultural material excavated in Western Pennsylvania. This material remains in our care at our collection facility and is used for research. As we try to reconcile our institutional past and bring equity and inclusion into our storytelling, these collections will help us interpret the pre-contact narratives of the region.

*Dr. Nicole Heller viewing the Adena Structure replica in the Delf Norona Museum.*

I am very lucky to be able to offer these educational experiences to my students and volunteers and I encourage those of you who can, to take the 90-minute drive from Pittsburgh to Moundsville, West Virginia to check out the Archaeology Complex. And the next time you find yourself in the North Eastern section of the Alcoa Hall of American Indians at CMNH, take some time to think about the mound builders who were here before the Haudenosaunee, Lenape, and Shawnee in Western Pennsylvania.

Amy L. Covell-Murthy is the Collection Manager for the Section of Anthropology and Archaeology at Carnegie Museum of Natural History.

Messages in Tardigrade Plastic Time Capsules

by Asia Ward

Person sitting at a table writing — Messengers, *time capsule installation by Asia Ward. Photo by Joe Grigar. 2022*

Have you seen the Tardigrade-shaped time capsule installation titled Messengers on the third-floor balcony in the Carnegie Museum of Natural History? I am the artist who fabricated those for the We Are Nature: A New Natural History exhibit experience. My name is Asia Ward, and I’m a social practice and public sculpture artist who is also the Project Manager and Science Communicator for the We Are Nature project.

Sometimes my two careers combine, as occurred during the time capsule interactive art installation. I was invited to contribute an art installation for the exhibition by Nicole Heller, the Associate Curator for Anthropocene Studies, and director of the We Are Nature project.

In my 14-year career as a science communicator for other organizations, I have worked with museums on prototyping interactive exhibits. The experience of contributing an art piece to a project I was also managing allowed me to get supporting departments involved in thinking about what an art installation could be. I generated the ideas for an interactive exhibit, and through group discussions and brainstorming with colleagues in the Education, Exhibition, Anthropology, and Anthropocene Studies departments, the final project concept was shaped. I then went to work sculpting large versions of Tardigrades out of recycled thermal plastic. Three time capsules were created as repositories for visitors’ thoughts about conditions in 2027, 2025, and 2095, years chosen for their potential to be a time of major change for life on Earth.

I created the Tardigrades to be transparent and hollow, with doors for the deposit of visitor messages. The installation runs from November 2021 until November 2022, and so far, out of all the interactive installations I have created, this has proven to be the most successful and the most surprising.

sketches of tardigrades — *Tardigrade sketches for* Messengers, by Asia Ward. Photo by Asia Ward. 2022

Why Tardigrades?

Tardigrades, otherwise known as “Water bears” or “Moss Piglets” because of their 8-legged chubby resemblance of key features on bears or pigs, are well known around the globe for their survival skills. I can’t seem to do research on them without finding some new fantastic feat they’ve conquered, like being frozen for 30 years and brought back to life, or failing to survive impact from a crashed rocket on the moon.

Tardigrades, which compare in size with a tiny rice grain, are microscopic creatures found almost everywhere on Earth, from your backyard to the top of a volcano or the ocean.

I’ve found them by gathering some lichen from my backyard, soaking a section of lichen in water, and then examining the fluid under a microscope, and BAM! There they are, crawling around eating and pooping. I think they’re weirdly cute and very accessible. If you’re interested, there are some instructions online for doing your own research.

I think what’s most inspiring about Tardigrades is how they have evolved to go into what is termed a tun state, becoming a dehydrated looking blob in a state of suspended animation in order to survive harsh environmental change, and then rehydrating when the environment is more to their liking. For these creatures, whose average life span is three to four months for some species, and a little more than 2 years for others, the ability to press “Pause” when things get tough, is unique. From my interpretation, the tardigrade’s time traveling ability makes them perfect messengers for future Earth.

Time Capsules as an Interactive Exhibit to Process the Anthropocene

Before the time capsules were fabricated, the installation required some thought as to how visitors could best approach the time capsules and feel invited to contribute a message for the future. I worked with the Exhibitions staff for a year to prototype different prompts and test their effectiveness on the floor with visitors. In collaborating with different departments, we realized that the Hub, where Messengers is located, should be a space where visitors can process what they’ve learned and express their feelings about the Anthropocene. The term Anthropocene is the name of the proposed current geological epoch when human activities dominate the functioning of the planetary system. This distinct geological time period is what We Are Nature: A New Natural History explores, using new interpretive panels in 15 existing exhibit areas and related art installations as focus points to help visitors learn more about the topic.

The final prompts and labels for the Messengers installation were part of what made it so successful. Every week, we get an average of 200-300 messages, many of them very serious, heartfelt, and earnest. An additional factor in its success is the message wall, where visitors can place their messages under the different year headers. During my observations, most visitors go directly to the message wall, reading from left to right every single message. The visitors might have come into the space because of the shiny and interesting looking Tardigrade sculptures, but they stay in the space and contribute because of the prompts and the messages that others have left.

wall with handwritten messages for time capsules — Messenger prompts and visitor message wall, photo by Asia Ward. 2022

Message wall prompt:

What are your hopes and fears for the future of life on Earth?

Each Tardigrade has a designated year:

Many climate scientists say we have until 2027 to take bold action to avoid climate disaster. If humans can keep global warming under 1.5°C (2.7° F), we reduce the risk of catastrophic heat and drought, food scarcity, flooding, and more.

The United States set a goal to have 100% carbon-free energy production by 2035. Achieving this goal will require a major overhaul of the energy system, changing the way we power homes, businesses, and transportation to reduce pollution.

Seven decades separate use from the 1950s, and seven decades separate us from the 2090s. The 1950s are known as the Great Acceleration. Some researchers look back at those years as a turning point when human activities and population growth became unsustainable, putting all life on Earth at risk.

Visitors’ Feelings About the Future as Part of the Anthropocene Collection

After reading thousands of messages, photographing and scanning them for documentation, some themes have emerged.

2027 is within close reach, and messages intended for this time capsule tend to mention pop culture, current events, or personal daily events, worries, or desires. There are references to Netflix series, The Simpsons, comic book-based movies, shootings, the war in Ukraine, Biden, Trump, current unusual weather, COVID-19, the Roe v. Wade Supreme Court case, hashtags, and social media handles. Additionally, the same hopes and fears as well as advice from the other years are mentioned. 2027 also leans more into the hopeful.

2035 contains more hopeful messages, with down to earth fears listed. In the hopeful range, messages list policy or government changes they would like to see and act towards, environmental and social justice, environmental regulation, being rich and famous, completing college and following their dreams, renewable energy and technology reversing Climate Change, climate disaster averted, no more species going extinct, and some general advice as to ‘be kind, compassionate, loving, accepting’ and to vote a certain way, recycle, pray, ‘believe in God.’ In the fear zone, messages list worry about having kids, kids’ future, escalating tension between countries and continued war, more deadly pandemics, natural environment extracted and wasted, too much government control, not enough regulation, and injustice for those with disabilities, women, and people of color.

ten handwritten messages — *Sample of visitor messages for 2095 for* Messengers. Photo by Asia Ward, 2022.

The year with the most messages is 2095. That, for most of us, is far enough in the future where we will be dead, and the following generations will be the ones to read the messages. This batch tends to lead into the fantastical, but perhaps possible? (Dinosaurs coming back, flying cars, interplanetary colonies), the super hopeful (world peace, climate disaster averted, human and non-human rights as norm, world hunger solved) or super fatalistic (humans have killed themselves off with most of the planet’s life, the robots take over Matrix-style, suffocating capitalism or government control, poison by pollution and heightened injustice). There’s also advice about ‘being the change you want to see’ and apologies ‘for screwing you over.’ Personally, I think the reason 2095 has the most messages is because it’s far enough away that it’s easier to remove oneself from the complicated day to day systems we’re involved in (like politics, culture, ethics, and current events), and to see the systems from a bird’s eye view.

What’s incredible about the messages, is that they come from all ages. From misspelled messages from kids just learning how to write and process the world around them, to older generations thinking back on their life and thinking forward for their grandkids.

Observing visitors interacting and reading their messages has been the most rewarding experience I could have asked for as an artist and project manager. Visitors spend so much time there, reading others’ messages, then sitting to write down their thoughts. Families come in and it becomes a family activity, sitting around the table, silent in their writing. I’m glad they feel invited to share their thoughts about the future of life on Earth. I read through every message and prepare them for documentation so they can be included in our collection. There isn’t one reading session where I don’t leave both laughing and crying.

Think about what your life will be like in 5, 13, 73 years.

What are your hopes and fears for the future of life on Earth?

If you would like to contribute to the time capsules, please visit before the We Are Nature: A New Natural History exhibit experience ends in November 2022. The message you write and post to the wall will be sealed inside a time capsule at the end of the exhibition. The capsules and all the messages will be preserved in the museum’s collection and opened in 2027, 2035, and 2095.

Thanks to the Gallery Experience Presenter Staff, the Natural History Interpreters, Events, Visitor Services, Education, Exhibitions, Anthropology, Anthropocene Studies, We Are Nature team, and the volunteers for your help making this installation possible.

Asia Ward is a social practice artist. You can learn more about her work on her website AsiaWard.com.

References

Asia Ward website. Accessed June 2, 2022.

https://asiaward.com/

Bordenstein, Sarah. “Tardigrades (Water Bears).” Microbial Life Educational Resources. Accessed June 2, 2022.

https://serc.carleton.edu/microbelife/topics/tardigrade/index.html

Carnegie Museum of Natural History website, Nature Crawl June 10^th 2022 registration webpage. Accessed June 2, 2022 https://carnegiemnh.org/event/nature-crawl-21-june/

Carnegie Museum of Natural History website, We Are Nature: A New Natural History webpage. Accessed June 2, 2022. https://carnegiemnh.org/explore/we-are-nature-a-new-natural-history/#:~:text=Carnegie%20Museum%20of%20Natural%20History%20follows%20up%20its%20groundbreaking%202017,time%20to%20our%20own%20times.

Megumu Tsujimoto, Satoshi Imura, Hiroshi Kanda. “Recovery and reproduction of an Antarctic tardigrade retrieved from a moss sample frozen for over 30 years.” Cryobiology. February 2016. Accessed June 2, 2022

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0011224015300134

Myriam Richaud, Emilie Le Goff, Chantal Cazevielle, Fumihisa Ono, Yoshihisa Mori, Naurang L. Saini, Pierre Cuq, Stephen Baghdiguian, Nelly Godefroy, Simon Galas. “Ultrastructural analysis of the dehydrated tardigrade Hypsibius exemplaris unveils an anhydrobiotic-specific architecture.” PubMed Central. March 9^th, 2020. Accessed June 2, 2022.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7062702/

O’Callaghan, Jonathan. “Hardy water bears survive bullet impacts- up to a point.” Science. March 18, 2021. Accessed June 2, 2022.

https://www.science.org/content/article/hardy-water-bears-survive-bullet-impacts-point

Waldman, Ariel. “Tested From Home: How to Find Tardigrades in Your Backyard!” YouTube Adam Savage’s Tested, Accessed June 2, 2022. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ccmnSXJG3QE

Wianecki, Shannon. “Hawaii’s mysterious water bears.” BBC, Travel. August 21^st, 2016. Accessed June 2, 2022.

https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20160602-hawaiis-mysterious-water-bears

Wright, Jeremy. “Tardigrada water bears (Also: moss piglets).” Animal Diversity Web. Accessed June 2, 2022.

https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Tardigrada/#lifespan_longevity

Prozac and Caffeine in Our Wastewater: Effect on Freshwater Mollusks

by Tim Pearce

Chemicals in our medications, supplements, foods, and beverages often pass through our bodies and wind up in our wastewater. Antidepressants are one of the more common pharmaceuticals in wastewater, and in some samples, concentrations of the stimulant caffeine exceeded those of pharmaceuticals (Raj et al. 2021). Although treatment plants can remove more than 50% of caffeine, the enormous popularity of caffeine consumption by humans results in such large levels of this chemical in wastewater that caffeine is sometimes used as an indicator of human-caused pharmaceutical pollution. These chemicals, along with our vitamins and other food additives, can affect freshwater organisms.

In this blog, I focus on two common chemicals: Prozac (fluoxetine) and caffeine (e.g., coffee, tea).

Prozac in low concentrations stimulates reproduction in marine and freshwater bivalves (Fong & Ford 2014), as well as in some freshwater snails, including the invasive New Zealand mud snail (Pomatopyrgus antipodarum). Interestingly, high concentrations of Prozac decreased reproduction in the snails.

snail shells — *Fig. 1. New Zealand mud snail,* Potamopyrgus antipodarum. Found in Romania in 1950 (CM 63909). Shells average about 5 mm (0.2 inches) long. Photo by Ryan Utz.

Clams on Prozac release gametes or young (Fong & Ford 2014). Small freshwater pill clams (Sphaeriidae) brood their young, and Prozac stimulates the release of these brooded offspring. In freshwater mussels, Prozac stimulates release of their larvae. Our knowledge of this effect can be used to augment propagation efforts to support recovery of endangered freshwater mussel species, but only with a clear understanding of these fascinating creatures’ full reproductive cycle. As part of their development, freshwater mussel larvae temporarily attach themselves to the gills of fish. If Prozac in the water of a natural setting stimulated larval release at times when fish hosts were absent or the larvae were too immature to attach, then the Prozac would be counterproductive to mussel reproduction.

Caffeine negatively affects marine bivalves by inducing oxidative stress (Júnior et al. 2019), leading to degradation of cell membranes (Silvia et al. 2022). When exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of caffeine, the freshwater clam Corbicula fluminea experienced physiological changes, including DNA damage (Aguirre-Martínez et al. 2015). Caffeine might have less effect on freshwater snails. One study on the freshwater snail Helisoma trivolvis showed little effect of caffeine on adult survival, but normal embryonic rotation in developing eggs was slowed at higher caffeine concentrations (Sanchez & Prezant 2016). (The caffeine used as a slug repellent in terrestrial agriculture is in much greater concentrations than that found in wastewater.)

clam shell with googly eyes — *Fig. 2. Asian clam,* Corbicula fluminea. Found in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania in 1993 (CM 72879). Scale in mm. [Googly eyes Photoshopped in] Photo by Tim Pearce.

If you needed another reason to reduce your consumption of pharmaceuticals and caffeine, the fact that it affects reproduction in freshwater creatures could be a consideration.

These findings about anti-depressants in our wastewater give new meaning to the phrase, “Happy as a clam.”

Timothy A. Pearce, PhD, is the head of the mollusks section at Carnegie Museum of Natural History.

Literature Cited

Aguirre-Martínez, G.V., DelValls, A.T. & Martín-Diaz, M.L. 2015. Yes, caffeine, ibuprofen, carbamazepine, novobiocin and tamoxifen have an effect on Corbicula fluminea (Müller, 1774). Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 120: 142–154.

Fong, P.P. & Ford, A.T. 2014. The biological effects of antidepressants on the molluscs and crustaceans: a review. Aquatic Toxicology, 151: 4-13.

Júnior, C.A.M., Luchiari, N.C. & Gomes, P.C.F.L. 2019. Occurrence of caffeine in wastewater and sewage and applied techniques for analysis: a review. Eclética Química Journal, 44(4): 11-26.

Raj, R., Tripathi, A., Das, S. & Ghangrekar, M.M. 2021. Removal of caffeine from wastewater using electrochemical advanced oxidation process: a mini review. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering, 4: 100129.

Sanchez, D. & Prezant, R.S. 2016. Influence of diphenhydramine HCl and caffeine on embryonic development and adult reproductive success of the freshwater gastropod Helisoma trivolvis. American Malacological Bulletin, 34(2): 92-102.

Silvia, S., Cravo, A., Rodrigues, J., Correia, C. & Almeida, C.M.M. 2022. Potential impact of UWWT effluent discharges on Ruditapes decussatus: an approach using biomarkers. Advances in Environmental and Engineering Research, 2(2): doi:10.21926/aeer.2102015 [18 pp].

GETTING FROM THE FERN HOLLOW BRIDGE TO THE FRICK FAMILY

by Lisa Miriello

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Scientists Call for New Research Studying the Combined Effects of Climate Change and Urbanization on Body Size Across Species

A Deep Look Inside Reptiles and Amphibians

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A Trip to Grave Creek Mound

by Amy L. Covell-Murthy

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Messages in Tardigrade Plastic Time Capsules

by Asia Ward

Why Tardigrades?

Time Capsules as an Interactive Exhibit to Process the Anthropocene

Visitors’ Feelings About the Future as Part of the Anthropocene Collection

Think about what your life will be like in 5, 13, 73 years.

What are your hopes and fears for the future of life on Earth?

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Prozac and Caffeine in Our Wastewater: Effect on Freshwater Mollusks

by Tim Pearce

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